- 'De-layering' of the traditional hierarchical structure at several levels. (Example: middle management & supervisory levels.
- Establishment of market-focused work cells, with construction on 1 product/process/customer
- Making each work cell responsible for a wide range of production functions, which encourages multi-skilled, quality control & maintenance
- Wider span of control.
- Teams
TEAMS
Teamwork involves people who interact regularly & coordinate their work towards a common goal. Management theorist Peter Drucker describes that biz are replacing the traditional linear sequence of research, development, manufacturing & marketing with a team-orientated approach. Some of the ways teams can be organized are:
- Self-directed work teams
- Quality circles
- Volunteer/ nominated teams
- Project teams and
- Task forces.
Characteristics of effective teams:
- Team members share the same goal
- Common trust
- Members feel they are being valued
- Members feel free to participate in decisions and discussions
- Decision are made by consensus
- Team leadership varies with the situation
- Team focuses on the causes of problems rather than the symptoms
- Team member are flexible & adapt to changing situations
- Team participation is encouraged by all
- Proactive
- Open and honest (and the rest use your common sense).
The Karpin report outlined team skills in today's business typically lag behind technical skills. Having technical skills does not = effective teamwork.
Participative or Democratic Leadership Style
A participative or democratic leadership style is one where the manager consults with employees to ask their suggestions and then seriously considers those suggestions when making decisions. It is referred to as the "we" approach. This style is frequently practices in biz with flatter management structures & work teams where there are diverse groups to be coordinated.
POLITICAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES
Politics, is the use of methods, sometimes unstated and/or unethical, to obtain power or advancement within an organization. Organizational politics are often unwritten rules of work life. They involve the pursuit of self-interest through informal methods of gaining power or advantage.
USES OF POWER AND INFLUENCE
Power is the ability to gather together R to get something done. "Power tends to corrupt and absolute corrupts absolutely." (Lord Action, British historian 1887). There are 5 sources of power.
5 Sources of Power
| TYPE OF POWER |
MEANING |
EFFECTIVE IN SITUATIONS WHERE: |
| 1. Legitimate power |
It is given because of status within the firm. |
There is a need for the manger to be seen s a professional when high-level decisions need to be made.
|
| 2. Expert power |
It emerges as a result of a person"s skills and expertise, and it is usually the reason for which the person was employed.
|
Performance standards are important & each member of the org is working towards organizational objectives.
|
| 3. Referent power |
It comes from people's individual characteristics and inspires and influences others |
When employees need inspiration to achieve performance objectives
|
| 4. Reward power |
Reward power relates to the rewards or the compensation a manager distributes for doing a good job.
|
Employees can participate in the organization and there is an acknowledgment that employees are experts in their area.
|
| 5. Coercive power |
Coercive power controls individuals in the organization by the actions or words of the manager. |
In times of crisis or danger when immediate compliance with instruction is required.
|
MANAGEMENT AS NEGOTIATING AND BARGAINING
Negotiating or bargaining is a decision-making process among people with different expectations. In times of prioritizing personal needs above the firm's needs, differences in attitudes, ideas and opinions between employees, managers need to adopt negotiating and bargaining. One very successful strategy for effective negotiating is the "win-win" approach.
STRUCTURES AS COALITIONS
A coalition is two or more people who combine their power to push or gain support for their ideas. Coalition can be categorized into 2 types: the formal coalition and the informal coalition.
| THE FORMAL COALITION
|
THE INFORMAL COALITION |
| Mission, vision, goals and objectives
Specific job descriptions
Operating policies
Control measures
Channels of authority
Biz plan span of control
Hierarchical levels
Structured lines of communication |
Relationships between managers and subordinates
Individual hopes and aspirations
Personal opinion regarding to org
Perceptions of trust, honesty & ethics
Influential employees & managers
Power plays and politicking
Interpersonal relationships
Needs of individuals |
STAKEHOLDER VIEW
Stakeholders can form coalitions; however, these tend to alter over time due to difference in outcomes. To identify and monitor changes in stakeholders' expectations, a stakeholder audit can be carried out. A stakeholder audit involves identifying all the parties that could be affected by the biz's performance and decisions.
STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CLASSICAL, BEHAVIORAL AND POLITICAL APPROACHES.
| MANAGEMENT THEORY |
STRENGTH |
WEAKNESSES |
| CLASSICAL-SCIENTIFIC |
Based on scientific principles
Management may be trained
Individual's interests subordinates to the survival of the biz
Work methods may be improved through time & motion study
POC are the central management functions
Specialization 7 division of labor
Clear, orderly lines of communication & authority
Emphasizes the importance of money as a motivator
|
Boredom resulting fro production line approach
Lack of employee empowerment
Rigidity of autocratic leadership style
Distressing of job satisfaction
More useful if the org is stable and operating in a more predictable external environment
Today's employees are less willing to accept such formal authority
Sense of alienation between managers and employees |
| BEHAVIORAL |
Stresses the importance of human K
Integrates ideas from sociology, psychology and anthropology
Highlights the importance of communication, teamwork, group dynamic, motivation & leadership
Highlights the importance of conflict resolution mechanisms
Greater empowerment of employees due to flatter management structures
Participative or democratic leadership style acknowledged. |
Complex theoretical concepts
Vast amounts of research for managers to read, digest and apply
Positive outcomes may not be immediate
Human = complexity
What motivates one individual may lessen another's motivation
As people change, their responses to management practices also change
Many behavioral theories appear too abstract to apply to the "real "world
Extensive use of jargon in theories makes it difficult to accept the ideas.
|
| POLITICAL |
Recognizes the "power plays" within groups of people
Acknowledges that individuals will pursue their own interests
Highlights the existence of hidden agendas
Highlights the need for managers to adopt new skills in negotiating, bargaining and conflict resolution
Explains power bases
Argues that all stakeholders' views need to be taken into account
Provides a mechanism for using power to achieve a wide range of stakeholder demands.
|
Provides only superficial explanation of organizational politics and power
Relies on personal observation and judgments instead of scientific reasoning
Managers may become hypersensitive about the strength of coalitions, which affect their performance.
Does not attempt to change the power relationships, only explain them |
